THE LAW OF INEQUALITIES, AS INSTITUTED IN THE GOVERNMENT

THE LAW OF INEQUALITIES, AS INSTITUTED IN THE GOVERNMENT

Jean Jacques Rousseau is French philosopher, writer and political theorist whose treatises inspired the leaders of the French Revolution and the Romantic generation. Rousseau was a classical liberal and he accepted the idea of government by contract. He believes that society is based upon some implicit contract, while the contract “prior state of nature”. The contract implies that the ruler is the people’s agent, not their master. Rousseau believed that people are not social beings by nature. He stated that people, living in a natural condition, isolated and without language, are kind and without motive or impulse to hurt one another. However, once they live together in society, people become evil. Society corrupts individuals by bringing out their inclination toward aggression and selfishness. Rousseau believed that laws should express the general will of the people. Rousseau saw the contract as one in which citizens gave up the freedom of the state of nature to submit their individual wills to the general will. Any kind of government could be considered legitimate, provided that social organization was by common consent. He opened men's eyes to the beauties of nature, and he made liberty an object of almost universal aspiration.

In an economically driven world, governments are not doomed to extinction. However, according to Rousseau “Modernization, made man abandon the government (social contract) and the civil society which lead to moral corruption and materialism.” According to Rousseau, all forms of government would eventually tend to decline. The degeneration could be restrained only through the control of moral standards and the elimination of special interest groups. The purpose by which the “social contract” is created for is not being put forward, instead governments are being use to “camouflage” the interest of the few, since it is being used to protect the interest of the few through the laws which are created. The “social contract” is created for everyone, but in reality it’s vested in the interest of the few who have become the pillars of the institution. Nowadays, most laws are created to safeguard the properties, rights and interest of the elites, making them richer and powerful. Even though the “general will” is still instituted in these laws, the purpose is not being followed or practice. The laws in the government may protect everyone, but in reality, it is fossilizing the very inequalities that private property has. In other words, the government, which claims in the interest of everyone else, is really in the interest of the few who have become stronger and richer as a result of private property. In an economically driven world, governments are doomed to extinction, but it calls for expansion, change and maintenance. As long, as there is greed for power and gold, conflict will always arise in each society.

Source:

1. Curtis, Michael (1976) The Great Political Theories V2. Haper Collins.

2. Santiago, Miriam Deffennsor (2003) History of Philosophy: The Great Political Thinkers (Philosphy Series, Vol 1) Central Professional Books, Inc: Quezon City

3. (1999) Ebbenstein, Alan O. Great Political Thinkers: From Plato to the Present.

International Political Relations as Distinct Academic Discipline

International Political Relations as Distinct Academic Discipline

Alt and Alesina’s “Political Economy:An Overview” and Gil’s “Reorienting the New (International) Political Economy” provides an overview on the importance of studying political economy, which relates to the political economy of institutions and public policy.. Political Economy, is described as a research which attempts to answer two central questions: how do institutions evolve in response to individual incentives, strategies and choice, and how do institutions affect the performance of political and economic systems? Political Economy has rejected the exogeneity of institutions and discussed the rejection of the dichotomization of economics and politics, which are in inextricably interconnected. For example, the implementation of laws is not possible without a given budget. Currently, the research agenda in IPE is being driven by a number of factors and forces that are often collectively labeled globalization. Gil’s described that globalization has little to do with the traditional state-centered concerns of International Relations, which is one reason some IPE scholars have now begun to think of IPE as distinct academic discipline, not just a sub-field of IR. There lies a challenge to re-invent the current discipline in order to make it more distinct. “The science of economics presupposes a given political order, and cannot be profitably studied in isolation from politics.” (E.H. Carr)

What we cannot have (again!) is economics without politics, and politics without economics. Economics is intrinsically political, thus economics and politics are interrelated, whereas the foreign economic policies that governments adopt emerge from the interaction between societal actors’ interest and political institution.(Oatley). International Political Economy opens up several new research agendas, some of which move away from IR as traditionally understood. The main strength of international political economy is that it raises the problems of development and change of sovereign statehood. The “development” problems are at the centre of the discipline, which focuses on the realities of global inequality, global / social polarization, and global income… The new international political economy also attempts to move away from the single western Eurocentric view, to change to a global discipline which will teach people something about the common, intellectual, material and spiritual culture and history of humanity and therefore about our common feature. The national economy is crucially important resource basis for the nation state. The borders of markets are dynamic, transparent, and porous; they rarely coincide exactly with the borders of states and a few markets today are even global in their reach. When trade within a market involves buyers and sellers in different nation-states, it becomes international trade and the object of political scrutiny. The main weakness of international political economy is that in its attempt to find a “global view of the discipline, international political economy ignores cultural differences, as well as internal class differences. Countries are grouped as 'core' and 'periphery,' but their cultures are ignored, and this makes the theory too simplistic as a holistic view. International Political Economy fails to incorporate internal class difference into research, which detracts from its credibility. It is also impossible to have a “global view” of the discipline that promotes the common interest of the humanity, because nation-states defined themselves by population and geography which causes “global tension”, as the countries are deemed to be nationalistic. It is difficult in globalization, to implement a global view, because there is a contradiction of views and adaptability. It would be difficult to remove the “culture centrism” since the countries would not think about the global goals of nations, instead they would first concentrate on the improvement on their own state, domestically. States, therefore, do care about the where (what countries would I or not transact with) and the who (who will they will be transacting with) and this creates a tension between the economic and the political analysis of trade. Globalization, a process that seems to defy easy definition, it breaks down barriers whether these barriers separate nation-states, cultures, labor markets, national economies and academic disciplines, creating a New IPE in the process. In so doing, IPE has perhaps carved out for itself an unexpected role: the academic discipline that studies the results of the creative destruction of modern society. Implementing political economy must be reformed, innovative, and reinvented, in order for it to become a distinct academic discipline devoid of infinite concepts..

Sources:

· Alt, James E & Alesina, Albero. (September 1998). Chapter 28. Political Economy: An Overview. A New Handbook of Political Science, pp. 645-675(31) Oxford Scholarship Online Monographs

· Gills, Barry K. (2001). Re-orienting the New (International) Political Economy New Political Economy, Volume 6, Issue 2 July 2001 , pages 233 - 245

· E.H. Carr, THE TWENTY YEARS' CRISIS

· Michael Veseth. (2004) What is IPE?

· Jackson, Robert H. et al. Introduction to international relations

· Oatley, Thomas, International Political Economy. Interest and Institutions in the Global Economy.

· New International Political Economy: Debates and Criticisms

The International: Movie Analysis applying neoliberalist policies

The International: Movie Analysis applying neoliberalist policies

In the movie “The International”, Interpol agent Salinger and his partner, New York Assistant D.A Whitman, are consistently stonewalled by local law enforcement in their attempt to close in on the bank’s insiders. They uncovered that I.B.B.C, an international bank, is buying large amount of weapons, and which it then sells to some terrorist organizations. The bank is involved in certain illegal activities such us money laundering, arms trading and destabilization of governments. The IBBC is trying to become the world’s bank that all terrorist and third-world nations use when shopping for ill-gotten weapons. But since the IBBC’s network of assassins and corrupt officials remains elusive, that justice comes mostly in the form of stale platitudes. According to Sallinger “Sometimes a man can meet his destiny on the road he took to avoid it.” The plot seems perfectly suited to the dire financial times in which we live in, the opportunity is lost in what amounts to a competent thriller that becomes less plausible as it progresses. The plot of the film is plausible because international banks, such as the World Bank, and IMF, have the capability to control how a government could leads its people through the programs and rules that they make for some countries that borrow money in their banks. The IBBC is also described by Calvini as bank, which have the objective to control the debt that the conflict produces. According to Calvini, if you control the debt, you control everything. When we look at our present economy at the moment, we can see this is already happening. Banks are controlling the debts of third world countries, like the Philippines for example. The Philippines has gained enormous amounts of debt from the IMF, and so that the government could borrow more, the Philippine Government blindly follows the neoliberalist policies of the IMF, even though these policies may not benefit the country. The movie presented an international bank that does not only control the money of the people, but also controls the government. They control their lives, and as a result everybody pays. The very essence of the banking industry, to make us all, whether we be nations or individuals slaves to debt.

Characteristics of Public Administration in a democratic institution

Characteristics of Public Administration in a democratic institution

Principles at the heart of good governance are participation, pluralism, subsidiarity, transparency, accountability, equity, access, partnership, and efficiency. The essence of public administration as a democratic institution is to use the principles of good (democratic) governance to design and structure state institutions, their internal processes and mechanisms, and their mission. Simply stated, it implies that public administration as a democratic institution has the following characteristics:

• It is accountable and transparent

“In the words of Francisco S. Tantuico Jr., former chairman of the Commission on Audit of the Philippines: “Public accountability is the foundation of integrity. It cuts to the soul of government. It unmasks the government of the day of whatever façade it wears.” The Constitution of the Philippines describes public accountability thus:

Public Office is a public trust. Public Officers and employees must at all times be accountable to the people, serve them with utmost responsibility, integrity, loyalty and efficiency, act with patriotism and justice and lead modest lives.”(Briones Leonor)...

• It is decentralized

Ø The Philippine Government is decentralized the legislation of the Local government code of 1991, whereas the legislation gave lgu units responsibility for basic services in health, agriculture, public works, and social welfare and environment and natural resources.

• It is instrumental in ensuring fair and legitimate elections

Ø Various departments are held incharge to make sure that there will be fair and legitimate elections, such as comelec...The various departments in the government sometimes help to conduct the election to be fair and legitimate...Elections may be insufficient, but they are a necessary and essential element of democracy. By allowing certain government posts to be filled through the choices made by the electorate, elections function as a mechanism for determining the legitimacy of the political leadership, while at the same time guaranteeing the representational requirements of a modern democratic state. It is because of these characteristics that elections create opportunities, as minimum as they maybe, for altering the status quo and serve as a vehicle for political change.

• It is based on a system of checks and balances between the executive branch and the judiciary and legistlative.

Ø The principle of the separation of powers has been adopted in the Philippines in order to avoid arbitrary rule and abuse of authority. The so called checks and balances among the three major departments of the government -executive, legislative and the judiciary – are no more than means of control by each and upon each of the departments. It is the duty of the departments to exercise moderation in their dealings with one another and their treatment of the public interest.This principle was instituted in the Philippine constitution for the purpose of impeding each branch from trespassing and seizing the power vested to others. Moreover, the provisions of the constitution in establishing limitations on the exercise of government authority also provide means of moderation

• It plays a central role in combating exclusion and protecting the rights of minorities and disadvantaged groups

Ø Government activities undertaken to protect society as a whole. This includes national defense, protective services like police, fire and jail, education and environment.

Ø The government protects the rights of the minorities and disadvantaged groups through various executive orders that is instituted, like the laws that protects the lands, of various ethnic groups, and minorites

• It has adequate management capacity to enhance access to justice;

Ø Free access to courts are not denied to any person by reason of poverty..The government make sure that the people are not deprived of their rights especially when they are facing criminal case, civil case,etc..

• It protects public goods

Ø The pursuit of the public good by enhancing civil society, ensuring a well-run, fair, and effective public service are some of the goals of the field.

Ø Government activities are desinged to provided assistance to economic, pressure, and social groups.

• It provides a facilitating environment for the active engagement and role of civil society and the private sector

Ø There government should not passed laws abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for redress of grievances.

Ø Government activties undertaken to regulate

• It utilizes the power of information and communication technology to promote citizens’ access and participation in the development proces

1. Article 3, Bill of Rights, Section 7: The right of the people to information on matters of public concern shall be recognized. Access to official records, and to documents and papers pertaining to official acts, transactions, or decisions, as well as to government research data used as basis for policy development, shall be afforded the citizen, subject to such limitations as may be provided by law”

• It promotes and strengthens partnerships of various types to achieve objectives.

Ø This characteristics is evident in the various politcal parties, interest groups and pressure groups in the Philippines....

Structural Features

1. hierarchal structure of authority

2. creation of subunits based on differ nation of functions or specialization

3. recruitment and promotion based on merit and competence

4. a system of rules and procedures to guide action in the organization.

Source:

Ø United Nations (2007). PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE: Governments Serving Citizens. 7th Global Forum on Reinventing Government. Building Trust in Government 26-29 June 2007, Vienna, Austria

Ø Briones Leonor. Public Financial Accountability for Integrity and Results: The Case of the Philippine Bureau of the Treasury

Ø 1987 Phillippine Constitution

Ø Tendero, Avelino (2000). Theory and Practice of Public Administration in the Philippines.Fiscal Administation Foundation Inc. (FaFI): Mandaluyong, Metro Manila.

Ø De Guzman, Raul P. Is there a Public Administration

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS AS BASIC FUNDAMENTAL PROTECTION OF MAN

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS AS BASIC FUNDAMENTAL PROTECTION OF MAN

John Locke is among the most influential political philosophers of the modern period. In the Two Treaties of Government, he claimed that men by nature and free and equal against the “divine right theory” claims that God had made all people naturally subject to a monarch. Locke argued that people have rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and property that have a foundation independent of the laws of any particular society. The social contract, where in the people in the state of nature agrees to transfer some of their rights to the sovereign such as the government to insure of protection of their properties, lives, and liberties. According to him if the government fails to promote the public good, it can be resisted and replaced with a new government by revolution. Locke also defends the principle of majority rule and the separation of legislative and executive powers.

Man is considered as a human being; therefore he/she has the capacity to exists as rational and free within their expected societal acceptance. By nature man is capable of understanding the “causes and effect” of their actions, as Lock claimed that “all men by nature are equal”, that is to say that everyone has an equal right to his / her own freedom without being subjected to the will or authority of another. We are all governed by “the law of reason”, in which “Law” is not so much limited as the direction of a free and intelligent agent to his proper interest. Thus self-government according to the law of reasons is necessary for human freedom. This freedom of man, and the liberty of acting according to his own will is grounded on his having reason, which able to instruct himself in “Law”. As men multiply, there is a need to for us to create a vital form of control in setting up societies, various institutions in order to preserve peace, liberty, justice. The political institutions as the basic fundamental institutions for man’s survival, we must support and utilize it in a proper manner. Man needs political institutions to exist as rational and free, because it is need to protect the basic fundamental rights of people, property, and etc. Without the existence of political institutions, man will lead to chaos and revolution. Man could live rational and free by nature, but if where are living in the group or society, we need as a set of institutionalized form of control such as laws, that will our protect and preserve our “life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness.” In order, to balance the competing the interest, institutions are created for fair and justifiable lifestyle. But in the modern world, as there is the existence of society such as state, must need institutional form of control.

Reference:

1) Curtis, Michael (1976) The Great Political Theories V2. Haper Collins.

2) Santiago, Miriam Deffennsor (2003) History of Philosophy: The Great Political Thinkers (Philosphy Series, Vol 1) Central Professional Books, Inc: Quezon City

3) Eisenstein, Great Political Thinkers